Metaphysical Poetry Essay

In the view of some critics, poems of this period have ‘delighted, puzzled and alienated readers’. What do you consider to be the demands and rewards for the readers of Metaphysical poetry? Refer in detail to at least three poems from this section of the anthology. You should consider the argument of the poems and the poet’s choices of language and verse form. Metaphysical poetry bases its ideas on explaining an extended metaphor, often on important and intellectual subjects such as the transience of life, mans relationship with God and love, in a context that entertains readers rather than boring them. This extended metaphor is known as the metaphysical conceit. It is often subtle, and therefore to some readers can be overlooked. However, for the readers who are able to uncover it, it can provide a deeper insight into the true meaning of the poem and can also make them question their own views on the subject, this is the reward intellectual readers receive from reading metaphysical poetry. Metaphysical poetry is often directed at intellectual readers. Some phrases in the poems would require prior knowledge to understand. This means that not all readers would be able to grasp the true meaning of the poem, or would overlook phrases. For example, in To His Coy Mistress Marvell uses several biblical references, such as ‘I would love you ten years before the flood’. This refers to Noah’s ark, and the flood depicted in the Bible. By using this image he is expressing that he would love her ten years before the beginning of time, and this is a subtle but strong compliment to his love. He also uses another biblical reference, ‘And you should, if you please, refuse Till the conversion of the Jews’. Those with prior knowledge would understand the idea that the Jews will never convert. The speaker in the poem is saying that she could refuse him forever and he would still love her. A reader who does not have biblical knowledge would surely overlook these phrases, but a reader who understands the strong compliments in this statements would have a much more enjoyable read of the poem, and would discover an extra level of meaning. This is one of the rewards of reading and understanding Metaphysical poetry. The idea of religion works in metaphysical poetry more than just in references to create subtle ideas. Religion is a common topic in Metaphysical poetry. Poems such as Love by George Herbert are based entirely around religion. In this poem, the speaker describes his interaction with God. This image of God is also personified as Love, and may suggest that God is love. Again, some readers may overlook this, and not realise that the person described in the poem is actually God. The way we can see that this figure is God is due to the use of lexis from the semantic field of religion. Words such as ‘sin’, ‘soul’, ‘Lord’ and ‘serve’ are all present, and this lexis is common in religious literature. The idea of religion works both ways, however. In To His Coy Mistress, although there is some reference to religion – as discussed earlier – there are also several phrases that don’t give an image of religion. The phrases ‘deserts of vast eternity’ is used to describe the afterlife, and this is an image that many Christians would not believe to be the afterlife. Marvell is suggesting a different view from the idea that everyone will go to either Heaven or Hell, an advanced view for a man living in an extremely religious time. One major device metaphysical poets use is the idea of a metaphysical conceit. All the metaphysical poems uses a metaphor to compare dissimilar things. For example, in Robert Herrick’s To Daffodils people are likened to daffodils, in relation to the transience of life. He uses phrases such as ‘haste away so soon’, and ‘We have short time to stay as you’. He is saying that, like daffodils, people will die too. This is a strange concept, but as you read the poem you begin to understand his logic. It would take a sophisticated mind to understand the ideas Herrick presents, but those who do understand would receive a deeper understanding of his argument. Structurally, Metaphysical poets use structure to present ideas in a clear and logical fashion. The ideas are often complex, and so, like an essay about a complicated topic, structure helps the reader understand. One common form of structure is to separate the poem into parts, each with an argument that leads to a clear conclusion. In To His Coy Mistress Marvell separates his argument into three parts. In the first part he describes what he would do if he had all the time in the world, how he would ‘adore each breast’ for two hundred years. However, in the second part he describes how he does not have that amount of time to adore her, and that she would die long before, and ‘worms shall try that long-preserved virginity’. In the final part Marvell concludes that as he does not have the time to adore her how he wishes, she should yield to his passion. This is a developed argument in three parts, and is a form of syllogism. It helps the reader understand the intent of the poem in a similar way to using paragraphs would in an essay. Rhythm is also used in metaphysical poetry to express the writers values. In To Daffodils the writer is presented as a person who has an unusual lack of trepidation for death. The opening quatrain is written in a mixture of iambic tetrameter and trimeter. This gives it a childish and nursery rhyme like rhythm. This helps to show the reader how the writer is uncaring about the situation, and is almost nonchalant about death. The line ‘stay, stay’, puts a halt to the childlike rhyme, but in a way could be perceived to make the first stanza sound almost like a lullaby. This makes the poem seem very calm and simple, feelings not usually associated with death and the transience of life. Feeling the effects of this rhythm show the reader the true feelings of the writer in a way many would not see. In conclusion, the metaphysical poets used many different devices to hide away many of the main ideas of their poems. Whilst many readers can understand the basic idea of the poem, they will not gain a full understanding of the point the poet is trying to make unless they have the knowledge and understanding required of a reader of Metaphysical poetry. For this reason, many will feel puzzled and alienated, whilst others will be truly delighted once they have gained the deeper understanding.

Causes of an Unhealthy Diet Essay

The Causes of An Unhealthy Diet There are many causes for an unhealthy diet. The causes themselves can range from person to person, but generally there are some that are identical from one person to another. The general causes that stand out the most include personal expense, believing current eating habits is healthy enough, and knowing a change is needed but doing little to change it. What you eat, whether you think about it or not, relies mostly on what you can afford. For example a college student like me, would find it more affordable to make some Macaroni and Cheese then go to a healthy restaurant. Also with expense, convenience can be included. Like the previous example a quick meal loaded with calories and other fats would be more convenient for a college student than making a five course meal from scratch. In the end the $0. 99 macaroni would be the more economical way to go. A big mistake a lot of people make is thinking what they currently eat is healthy enough already. They will attempt to stick to the food pyramids suggested servings, but will pay little attention to actual ingredients in the food. Two perfect examples are pasta and juice. Out of convenience, Pasta Roni is used for a quick flavorful meal. Little attention is given to the preservatives and ample amount of sodium included in each box. Fruit juice is possibly the worst culprit. You drink your juice thinking you’re getting your servings for the day. In actuality you’re getting 10% actual juice and an unhealthy overload of sugars and food colorings. It really pays to read all the nutrition facts when planning a healthy meal change. Finally, knowing a change is needed and providing resistance is a major contributor to an unhealthy diet. For most of us having a set schedule or favorite food is hard to change. For example, the thought of having to give up Chicago Style Hot Dogs for the sake of a healthier diet would not be a sacrifice I would be willing to make. And then there those who simply resist all efforts of change from nutrition to exercise. They are so set in their ways nothing will change their minds. Unfortunately these are the people you usually see with the serious health problems or obesity due to unhealthy diets. There will always be causes for an unhealthy diet. It is the individuals’ responsibility to recognize and manage those causes. Whether the causes are monetary, lack of interest in actual ingredients, or resistance to change. The final outcome will be based on the individuals’ decisions thus making overall health a personal problem.

Strategy Formulation United Way Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Strategy Formulation United Way - Essay Example Two possible strategies for United Ways would include an integrated marketing communication strategy and a control and monitoring mechanism in the area of corporate governance that would involve appointment of independent auditors as well as implementation of strict code of conduct. The following sections would largely show how these two strategies could be used to counter the issues faced by the organization. The issues and advantages for the two strategies would be specifically analyzed in the following sections. The recent financial crisis had a major impact on the accessibility of funds as disposable income dried up following job cuts. It was becoming difficult for United Ways to sustain itself in the market. Certain alternative strategies for the organization would include going international and seeking funds from across the world. The company could use Americans living in other nations to generate funds for the organization in nations where the effect of financial crisis is le ss severe (Norris, 2007, p.218-220). In addition to this the organization should also use an integrated marketing communication strategy based on social networking and internet to raise funds from international sources.

American firm opening branch in Japan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

American firm opening branch in Japan - Essay Example During the Nara and Heian periods (710-1185) the emperors began to practice Buddhism, believing its teachings would protect the state. The Muromachi era (1333 to 1568) brought disintegration of the central government, firearms were introduced by the shipwrecked Portuguese soldiers, and Christianity was introduced by Francis Xavier. (Background, 2005, p. 3). Finally in the Edo period (1600-1868) Japan enters into an age of â€Å"peace and national isolation.† (Background, 2005, p.4). The United States wants to use the Japanese ports as supply bases for its commercial fleet, and, in a surprise move, Japan accepts the US demands and opens its doors for the first time in two centuries. In the Meiji period (1868-1912), the emperor was restored, and Japan made its transition to nation-state. The Showa period (1926-1989) brought many more changes for Japan, including World War II and its aftermath, including the necessary economic recovery. In 1941 Pearl Harbor brought the US into war in the Pacific and in August of 1945 â€Å"the first atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima, the second on Nagasaki; the emperor airs by radio a statement of unconditional surrender.† (Background, 2005, p. 5). The years of 1945-1952 brought allied occupation of Japan, with women gaining legal equality as well as the right to vote. Japan’s poli tical life was changed to a parliamentary state, and with the peace treaty signed in 1951, Japan regained independence. The â€Å"High Growth Age† in Japan occurred from the late 1950’s to the early 1970’s and Japan was rewarded with a booming economy. (Background, 2005, p. 5). Japan is made up of five islands; however there are some thirty-six hundred islands in the entire group, and dozens that are actually inhabited. Japan has twenty-nine thousand kilometers of coastline, and the total land area is 142,000 square miles which makes Japan one-twenty-fifth the size of the United States, or roughly the size of

Ethics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Ethics - Essay Example The paper will then evaluate the relation of the first situation and then the second situation in terms of the aforementioned points of view. Later on the essay will discuss the interplay of ethical principles in both cases and how they interact with each other, and the paper will end with a conclusion that sums up the whole essay. Therefore, the paper aims to discuss the specific situations of the scientists, defines the concepts of deontology and consequentialism, as well as analyzes the situations in both points of view and from that it will ascertain which scientist is right. Ethics refers to the â€Å"code of moral standards by which people judge the actions and behaviors of themselves and others†.1 Ethics is a set of rules and regulations that define as well as govern the morality of a person’s conduct in various professional fields. Different professions demand following of different ethical theories and it is the same in case of different regions as well. Thus d eriving a universal ethics that can be applied uniformly in all fields and regions is impossible. Therefore, keeping this is mind, various ethicists have come up with ethics suitable for the respective professions and regions, which has led to the origin of several ethical theories that include relativism, absolutism, deontology or duty ethics, Kantian theory, utilitarianism, consequentialism, virtue ethics etc. The paper at hand thus deals with deontology and consequentialism in terms of the two cases given. The first case describes the situation of scientist A, where she deliberately modifies the data related to her experiment so as to achieve success in the experiment. Her act of distorting the data is against the moral code of conduct, or rather the ethics. Ethics is built upon certain values and the act of distortion here overrides these values, some of which are honesty, integrity and responsibility. She becomes dishonest by changing the data and modifying it in order to make the experiment successful, thus she does not follow the principle of â€Å"honesty†.2 By not keeping the data in its original form, she also neglects the value of â€Å"integrity,† by being untruthful to herself as well as others around her, which would later on lead to the development of a guilty conscience.3 ‘A’ further breaches the ethics of responsibility, as she does not fulfill her obligation of submitting clean and unbiased data. Therefore, it is observed that scientist A deliberately distorts data in order to create a successful scientific experiment, thus intentionally violating ethical values such as honesty, integrity and responsibility. The second case describes the situation of scientist B, where she has omitted some data due to her carelessness. But it is said that the consequences were same in both the cases, which means despite her omissions, she succeeds in the experiment. In this case, the scientist has not deliberately tampered with data , rather the data has been changed due to a state of being unaware. However, this unawareness stems from negligence or ignorance from the part of B, as she has not gone through the data again and made sure if it was completely accurate. Therefore, it can be discerned that she breaches the ethics of responsibility, as she does not cross check her data at any time of the experiment, thus unintentionally leading to distortion of data. It is natural for human beings to make

How Personal Can Ethics Get Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

How Personal Can Ethics Get - Essay Example The three ethical issues of the case were the unethical behavior of Valarie’s boss Water, personal ethical dilemma of Valarie and the third was Valarie’s sharing the company’s sensitive information with her boyfriend who was outsider of the company. In the case I had faced the similar situation like Valerie; I had used the invoices I had found near the copy machine of the copy room of the office area to the CEO of the company. The paper I had found is strong evidence that can be supported by the actions being taken by Water. I would have also clarified my condition to the CEO and request him to not reveal my name unless some strong action is being taken against Water. I strongly believe the CEO himself would understand that in order to sustain the growths and have competitive advantage such practices should be discouraged and strictly prohibited. The company also has a replacement for Water and an effective team of people who like to work. I would never have shared the organizational information with my boyfriend or anyone close to me. I would have prepared myself for the alternatives so that if things go worst than I have an option for myself. The world does not end there. My moral values are the base for my ethical standards which do not allow me to go against the company interests and policies. The stressors for Valarie are result of poor work place environment, unethical behavior of the boss and the personal factors like work visa and educational issues. The stressors for Valarie are the situational stressors like unfavorable working conditions where the immediate boss is involved in unethical practices and her own frustrations of not being able to do anything about it (Scheck et al, 1997). The second category of the stressors is anticipatory stressors like unpleasant expectations and fear (O’Driscoll and Beehr, 1994). The unpleasant expectations are the expectation raised due to the personal

Statement of Purpose Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 7

Statement of Purpose - Essay Example er, the element finance run in my family as my mother and father handles their own business and my education in finance would aid both of them considerably. It is my mother’s trade in Gold at metatrader software program that invoked me to start a finance related study .On one winter break, I voluntarily started studying the trade market, accustomed myself with the finance news, updated forex calendar, indulged in online trading chart and scrutinized technical analyzing tools. All of these sparked in me a passion to learn more about finance, especially quantitative finance. The uncertainty and fluctuation in the financial field pulled me strongly into it as I found it to be really challenging. This was the moment of truth and I decided to take up a credible course in quantitative financial studies. At the same time, I also realized the importance of finance in this sophisticated world and how much this study can help me in building my future. My excitement in learning finance related course soon turned out into a consolidated passion and solidified my desire to devote my future to the field of finance and investment. The quantitative finance course offered by your esteemed organization impressed me greatly and convinced me to get admission in it in a chase to follow up my dreams and desires. I understood that this quantitative program has the potentiality to manage assets and minimize risk which is the core aim of any business related study. I foresee that finance related course has the power to destroy or flourish the status of a business. This even more strengthened my decision to learn quantitative finance course. Moreover, it is when the financial crisis hit the world in 2009, I completely understood the importance of financial study on an international platform. I would like to confess here that the appropriate course offered by your prestige university has the impeccable ability to construct my future in a positive manner. I can put down in front of you

Information System Development Blog Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Information System Development Blog - Essay Example The commands available are compiled together in the menu, while actions are performed later. Windowing system deals with software devices like graphics hardware and pointing devices, besides cursor positioning. In a personal computer, these elements are all modeled via a desktop metaphor in order to produce desktop environment simulation where the displays represent a desktop where documents and document folders can be placed. Window managers combine with other software so as to simulate desktop environment with various degrees of realism. The process that takes place in user interface components is, the message is first relayed on the physical component, perceived by perceptual components and then conceived by conceptual components. Though the three components have different functions, their functions are related. Components of user interface that have three dimensions, especially 6hose designed for graphics are common in movies and literature. They are also used in art, computer games and computer aided design. They are important in considering the interaction design because they enhance efficiency and make it easy to use the underlying logical design of stored programs, that is, usability (Marcin, 2009). The user typically interacts with information through manipulation of visual widgets, which allow for appropriate interactions to the held data. Together, they support the necessary actions in order to achieve the objectives of the user. A model view controller ensures a flexible structure, independent from the interface but indirectly linked to functional applications or easy customization. This allows users to design and select different skins at their own will. User-centered design methods make sure that the introduced visual image in the design is perfectly tailored to the duties it must perform. Larger widgets like windows normally provide a frame for the content of the main presentation like web page or email message. On the other

There was a perdominant clan mind set in appalchia and in turn Term Paper

There was a perdominant clan mind set in appalchia and in turn influenced feudings in appalchia. Scottish and irish and welsh im - Term Paper Example It is important to note that the Appalachians did not have trust in the justice system and hence resolved most of their issues of conflict with violence. Settlements 1The mountainous regions were invaded by the settlers from Irish, Scottish and those from welsh. The understanding of these earlier settlements in Appalachian is sometimes difficult with respect to the time they settled and the purpose for their immigration into this land. It is believed that the Irish and the Scottish were the first to settle within the mountainous regions. The main purpose for these settlements was to come and bring Christianity to their new found land and hence revolutionize the people who inhabited this region. It is also important to note that the settlers who came to this region were mainly Christians who loved music very much. Their purpose of civilization and the spread of their respective religious believes were however very futile. One important thing with these settlements however was noticed as music and the spread of music in this region; however, they found many challenges. There were very few churches as well as very few Christians and hence it was very difficult to establish themselves well. However, they mainly settled along the coastal regions along the North Carolina coasts, cape Fear River as well as Wilmington. However, few others found themselves in Appalachian highlands. These settlements were very important in the Appalachian since they affected the music of the Appalachian highlands as well as the life styles. The living styles were affected much by the Scottish and the Irish who came with the idea of Christianity and forgiveness. However, they faced challenges of remoteness and the inability to communicate efficiently within the region because of the physical barriers that were created by the mountainous topography of the place. However, Appalachian served as a new land for transformation since it resulted into the transformation of the people and their be liefs. It is however important to note that this took long time since the population was highly dispersed with reference to their population. 2Physical barriers served as the stumbling blocks to civilization and resulted into lack of trust for the legal systems that existed. Because of this, the option that remained for the people in case of conflicts and disputes was to resort to wars and violence. The mistrust they had with the legal system played a very important role in later years after settlement in the ignition of conflicts and violence that resulted into long periods of feuds as reported by researchers. It is also important to note that as new settlers, they did not only perceive courts and the systems as inappropriate but they also perceive d the people in the same way. 3Appalachia regions were isolated due to its topography and hence reaching there was not easy. This resulted into lagging behind other regions in terms of social, political and economic development. It is al so believed that these people were not well educated and hence there was no public awareness with respect legal system and the procedures to seek justice through the courts. Among all these, cultural beliefs and poverty played an important role in determining the way of life of the Appalachian

Pizza Hut Report Correction1 Essay Example for Free

Pizza Hut Report Correction1 Essay Pizza Hut, Inc. is the largest pizza restaurant in the world in terms of both the number of outlets and the percentage of market share it holds. On June 15th, 1958, two brothers Dan and Frank Carney opened the first Pizza Hut restaurant in Wichita, Kansas. A friend suggested to them that they should open a pizza palor, the brothers agreed that the idea could prove successful. The Carney brothers borrowed $600 from their mother to start the business with friend John Bender. Renting a small building in downtown Wichita and purchasing second hand equipment to make pizzaz, the Carneys and Bender opened the first Pizza Hut restaurant. On the opening night of the restaurant, they gave pizza away to encourage community interest. Pizza Hut, Inc. oversees more than 11,000 pizza restaurants and delivery outlets in 90 countries, for example, Trinidad and Tobago, worldwide. A Pizza Hut restaurant is characterized by a particular freestanding design with a prominent red roof. The restaurants are full-service, eat- in/carryout with about 60-90 seatings, open from 11 a. m. to midnight. Pizza Hut delivers pizzas, pasta and wings. They were not only the first to provide America with Pan Pizza, but they were also the first ever online purchase. SID: 1517851/1 Mission Statement Pizza Hut, Inc. mission statement is: We take pride in making a perfect pizza and providing courteous and helpful service on time all the time. Every customer says, â€Å"I’ll be back! † Another part of Pizza Hut, Inc. mission statement is: We are accountable for profitability in everything we do, providing our shareholders with value growth. Pizza Hut core values goes by the acronym P. E. A. R. L. S PASSION for excellence in doing everything EXECUTE with positive energy and need ACCOUNTABLE for growth in customer satisfaction RECOGNIZE the achievement of others and have fun doing it LISTEN and more importantly, respond to the voice of the customer. SID: 1517851/1 Financial Summary SID: 1517851/1 Marketing Mix 7 P’s Product ? Pizza Hut only sells pizzas but deals in a variety of other products such as appetizers, beverages, desserts, pastas ?Pizza Hut mainly sells four types of pizzas with three sizes, namely small, regular and large. Those are Pan pizzas, Sausage crust pizzas, stuffed crust pizzas, thin crust pizzas. Price ? Pizza Hut follows a high/low pricing (â€Å"Price Skimming†) strategy. Thing high/low strategy has several advantages for Pizza Hut such as: ?Use to create excitement SID: 1517851/1? Set high price initially to send a signal that its products are best in quality and service offered in excellent. ?In competition either from pizza players or from substitutes, Pizza Hut has also reduced price by maintaining the same level of customer service and quality. Promotion ? Media advertising ?Sales promotion ?Special events and experiences ?Public relations ?Coupons ?Discount Process ? The customers are invited to check the ingredients used. ? Delivery on time or free next time ?Take away refined carryout procedures to provide faster, more efficient service rapidly expanded the delivery operations throughout the country implementing combination operations Place ? Pizza Hut’s first method of distribution is delivery. ?Offers dine-in ?Online ordering ?Largest competitive advantages is the restaurant style facility SID: 1517851/1 People ? Pizza Hut have a standard uniform for their employees ?Employees are well trained ?They maintain the customer and employee relationship in good manner. Deliver consistent standards of hospitality. ?They always appear well groomed Physical Evidence ? Pizza Hut focuses on neat and clean environment ?The staff believes that they are providing the superior quality to their every customer ? They have a pleasing environment ?Nice interior decorations which looks rich SID: 1517851/1 Marketing Mix Summary Pizza Hut, Inc. mainly sells Pan pizzas, stuffed crust pizzas, sausage crust pizza, thin crust pizzas. They follow a â€Å"high/low pricing† strategy as far as its new product are concerned where it fixes the price higher than its competitors and then gradually lowers the price below the competitor’s prices. Pizza Hut offers dine-in and also delivery, their employees are well trained and well groomed. The food manufacturing process at the restaurant is completely transparent. Pizza Hut focuses on neat and clean environment. They promote their business through advertising, human relations et chetera. SID: 1517851/1 Market Analysis Suppliers – Some of Pizza Hut’s suppliers in Trinidad are Arawak, Flour Mills, Coca- Cola, SOLO and Blue Waters. Public – The bank, employees, media governments and T. V has a big impact on the company due to the storing of their money, getting workers to get the job done and advertising. Intermedians – There are no intermedians for this company. Customers – Competitors – Pizza Hut’s competitors in Trinidad are Dominos, Marios, Pizza Boys, Joe’s Pizza and Papa John’s. The market share in the pizza business is very high due to the amount of brand name pizzas, therefore if you want to go into the pizza business, I suggest you go under one of the brand name companies. SID: 1517851/1 PESTLE Political – Political issues may affect the business in different ways. There are political factors in Trinidad affecting Pizza Hut due to competition. Factors such as laws on business employment, taxation and pollution apply on the organization which it has to follow regarding the rules. Environmental There are no laws that are really affecting the company environmental wise, However, the company must contribute to the community in some way. Socio-Cultural – Every country has cultural norms, values, beliefs and religion which can affect the organization. Technology – Today’s techonology is improving. Due to new technology the company is able to bake and heat products faster which provides efficient service. There are also new ways of marketing for instance, internet; telemarketing and the organization can advertise their products with much more faster pace. Management Information System helps in collecting customer data, daily transactions and forecasting. Legal – Due to daily operations, the laws are not affecting this business in any way. Economic – Once the country’s GDP (Gross Domestic Product) is high, this will be a great signal for the business as the per capita income of the people will be increased SID: 1517851/1 and they will spend more money. In Trinidad and Tobago the GDP is high which is a great signal for this organization. Reference List SID: 1517851/1 https://order. pizzahut. com/home? http://www. slideshare. net/deepankarverma73/pizza-hutreport related=1 SID: 1517851/1 SID: 1517851/1 Module Title: Marketing Essentials Module Code: Due Date: Thursday 16th, April 2015 Word Count: 1000.

Strategies and Technology to Determine Chicken Freshness

Strategies and Technology to Determine Chicken Freshness 2.0Â  INTRODUCTION Recently, there have been various inventions of sensors to detect the freshness of food. A chemical sensor means that a tool that convert chemical information into an analytically useful signal. The device acts as an analyzer (Hulanicki et al, 1991). Smart or intelligent packaging has been the result of using such sensors into the food packaging technology. Smart packaging uses chemical or biosensor to observe the quality and safety of food from the producers and relay the outcome to the consumers. Time-temperature indicators, ripeness indicators, chemical sensors, biosensors and radio frequency identification are some of the examples of components in smart packaging (Kuswandi et al, 2011). 2.1Â  Chemical Sensor in Determining Chicken Cuts Freshness Chicken is a highly perishable food, as it usually deteriorates within a week of slaughtering, even when it is put in storage chiller systems. Chicken spoilage is mainly due to microorganisms (Kuswandi et al, 2013). Microorganisms in broiler chicken are heterogenous. The common microorganisms in aerobically stored, chilled poultry meats are Flavobacteria, Shewanella putrefaciens, Acinetobacter spp., Corynebacteria spp., Moraxella spp. and fluorescent pseudomonas (Amaut-Rollier et al, 1999). Biogenic amines (BAs) are generated by the growth of decarboxylase-positive microorganisms under favourable conditions to enzyme activity. Many Enterobacteriaceae, Pseudomonas spp. and certain lactobacilli, enterococci and staphylococci are active in the formation of Bas. The amount of amines formed depends abundantly on the type of microorganisms present. The formation of amines, including BAs is primarily a product of the enzymic decarboxylation of specific amino acid due to microbial enzyme activity (Kuswandi et al, 2013). The amino acids can also suffer oxidative deamination, decarbozylation and desulfurization, resulting in gases such as NH3, CO2, and H2S. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is generally known to be produced during microbial growth. (Rukchon et al, 2014) Quantifying chemical changes could provide information on the degree of spoilage. A number of indicators have been proposed to analyse the quality of meat, including BAs, volatile bases, nucleotide breakdown products, volatile acidity and CO2. Thus, these compounds can be taken as quality indicators of chicken freshness during storage (Rukchon et al, 2014). 2.2Â  Problem Statement Increasing of production of poultry meat and products are significant throughout the world in the last decade. Chicken and poultry products are famous because of their specific sensory attributes and the tendency of the public to consider white meat are healthier than red (Balamatsia et al, 2005). Nowadays, demands for the freshness and safety of food products by the consumers are increasing continuously (Kuswandi et al, 2013). However, spoilage of chicken and poultry products has become a burden to the producers plus it can bring a health hazard to the consumers, since poultry meat may contain pathogenic microorganisms (Economou et al, 2009). However, with the invention of smart packaging, which can observe the quality and safety of food and relay the result to the consumers. The sensors used in the packaging come with variety of functions, such as monitoring the freshness, pathogens, leakage, carbon dioxide, oxygen, pH, time and temperature. The technology is beyond the existing standard technologies, which are control of weight, volume, colour, appearance and etcetera (Kuswandi et al, 2011). Colour changes of pH dyes such as bromothymol blue, bromophenol blue, bromocresol purple, methyl red, bromocresol green, methyl orange, methyl yellow, phenol red can be detect acidic/basic volatile compounds, as they display an irreversible change in colour. These are some of the indicators that can be used to make sensors to detect chicken freshness. The sensors then can be stickered or paste onto the packaging (Rukchon et al, 2014). 2.3Â  Objectives The goal is to satisfy the increasing demands of customers, to be able to produce fresh goods, or at least providing scientific evidence informing the customers of the condition of the product, and not based on oral evidence only, as the seller or producer can just fabricate the truth. The objectives of this study are: To investigate the relationship between the numbers of microorganisms and level of spoilage To develop an indicator to monitor the freshness of chicken 3.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 3.1Â  Smart Packaging Smart packaging are packaging that can do more than traditional packaging, in terms of storing, protecting and providing information about the product (Kerry and Butler, 2008). Smart packaging can provide information about the condition (i.e. level of spoilage, freshness of content) of the contents of the pack through colour coding, wireless information, or etcetera. Smart packaging is quite different than active packaging. While active packaging will be activated when it is triggered, smart packaging is more to an indicator of microbial growth, physical shock, leakage or microbial spoilage (Intelligent and Active Packaging Opportunities in Specialty Papers, 2009). Smart packaging can switch on and off according to changing external or internal conditions. Then, it will inform the status of the content to the customers (Butler, 2013). 3.1.1Â  Indicators for Meat Freshness Indicators of freshness can provide direct information from the outcome of chemical changes or microbial growth in food. The production of freshness indicator in meat products depends on the types of product, related spoilage flora, conditions of storage and packaging system (Kerry, 2012). Table 1:Potential indicators in detecting meat freshness (Kerry, 2012) Potential indicators Components to detect Colour-based pH indicators Microbial metabolites Ethanol Fermentative metabolism of lactic acid bacteria Volatile compounds (e.g. dimethylamine, biogenic amines) Muscle-based product decomposition Myoglobin based freshness indicator Hydrogen sulphide, a breakdown product of cysteine Majority of meat freshness indicator are colour change indicator that gives its result according to microbial metabolites that are produced gradually during spoilage (Kerry, 2012). 3.1.2Â  Sensors for Food Pathogens and Contaminants The easiest microbial contamination presence that can be detected indirectly is by measuring changes in gas composition in relation to the microbial growth, by using gas sensor. The increase in CO2 concentration can determines microbial contamination only in packages that do not contain CO2 as a protective gas. The indicators are usually colour changing, that can be based on chromogenic substrates of enzymes produced by the microorganisms, the consumption of certain nutrients or the detection of microorganism itself. One of the examples is the use of nanostructured silk as a platform for biosensors. This silk has quite a lot of advantages, as it is edible and biodegradable, and it can also be integrated within the packaging of products itself. Conducting polymers, one of biosensors can be used to detect the gases released during microbe metabolism. Biosensors are produced by inserting conducting nanoparticles into an insulating matrix, and the change in resistance correlates to the total amount of gas released. These sensors are evolving to detect food borne pathogens through quantification of bacterial cultures (Kuswandi et al, 2011). 3.2Â  Examples of Indicators 3.2.1Â  Methyl Red Methyl red is a pH indicator. The methyl red/cellulose membrane functions as a freshness sensor to detect freshness or spoilage of chicken. It is based on increase of pH, because the amounts of volatile amines that are produced in the package increase gradually making the pH increase as well. Following this, the sensor will change colour from red to yellow as an indicator for spoilage, and it is of course visible to the naked eye. Since the pH of fresh chicken meats is around 5.50 and the pH of spoilt chicken meat is considered above 6.0, the increasing of pH will take place during the deterioration of chicken meats, as the volatile amines are increasing gradually (Kuswandi et al, 2013). Figure 1:Â  The colour changes of methyl red/cellulose membrane versus time of chicken cuts stored at room temperature (Kuswandi et al, 2013) Figure 2:Â  The colour changes of methyl red/cellulose membrane versus time of chicken cuts stored at chiller temperature (Kuswandi et al, 2013) 3.3.2Â  Colorimetric Sensors Array An electronic nose (e-nose) is a tool that can recognise specific components of a smell and examine its chemical makeup to distinguish it. E-nose consists of a system for chemical detection like array of electronic sensors and a system for recognising pattern, such as a neural network (WhatIs.com, 13 November 2014). E-nose system is composed of many non-specific sensors, and an odour stimulus produce characteristic fingerprint from the sensors array. Fingerprints patterns from known odour are then used to make a database, and teach the pattern identifying system so that unknown odours can be recognised and classified (Chen et al, 2014). A low-cost colorimetric sensors array was fabricated, using printing chemically responsive dyes on a C2 reverse silica-gel flat plate, along with a specific colorific fingerprint to identify volatile compounds. AdaBoost-OLDA, a combination of orthogonal linear discriminant analysis (OLDA) and adaptive boosting (AdaBoost) is a classification algorithm that was also proposed to use with the colorimetric sensors (Chen et al, 2014). Figure 3:Â  Schematic diagram of E-nose system based on a colorimetric sensors array (Chen et al, 2014) Total volatile basic nitrogen (TVBN) is one of the best indicators to differentiate between fresh and spoilt poultry. In China, above 15 mg/100 g of TVBN is considered spoilt meat (Chen et al, 2014). Figure 4:Â  Reference measurement results of TVBN content for all samples (Chen et al, 2014) Figure 5:Â  Differences images for fresh chicken sample (a) and spoilt chicken sample (b) (Chen et al, 2014) Figure 5 is the difference of images for the fresh and spoilt samples, by subtracting the initial from the final image. As mentioned earlier, each difference image has its own specific fingerprint. The sensors array which contain the selected metalloporphyrins dyes have responded sensitively to many of volatile organic compounds such as tryptamine, putrescine, cadaverine and other biogenic amines during chicken spoilage. The extra dyes which consist of three pH indicators have responded to hydrogen sulphide and organic acids such as lactic acid. All of the spoilage process can be recorded on the change of chemical responsive dyes (Chen et al, 2014).

Adolf Hitler Essay example -- essays research papers

Hitler’s Childhood Adolf Hitler was born on April 20, 1889, in a small Austrian village called Braunau-am-Inn. Adlof was born a sickly child, his mother, Klara, watched over him night and day. Klara Hitler protected young Adolf from her short-tempered husband, Alois. Adolf grew into a thin, dark-haired, blue-eyed boy with an angular face (Twisted 63). At the age of 6, Hitler started school and showed excellent achievement in his classes. Outside of school young Hitler was energetic and had many friends. Adolf’s home life was far less happy. His father ran the household like a military boot camp. When his father was in the same room as him, Adolf was not allowed to speak without permission. The first signs of Adolf’s aggression showed up at the age of 7. Adolf would challenge his tyrannic...

William Shakespeares Sonnet 18 Essay examples -- Shakespeare Sonnet

Keeping love alive is not easy. One knows that life eventually comes to an end, but does love? Time passes and days must end. It is in "Sonnet 18", by Shakespeare, that we see a challenge to the idea that love is finite. Shakespeare shows us how some love is eternal and will live on forever in comparison to a beautiful summer's day. Shakespeare has a way of keeping love alive in "Sonnet 18", and he uses a variety of techniques to demonstrate how love is more brilliant and everlasting than a summer's day. The first technique Shakespeare uses to demonstrate everlasting love is to ask the question "Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?" (1) This leads the reader to consider other questions. Is love as bright and beautiful as a summer's day? Is the person the speaker is admiring as lovely and as kind as a summer's day? These questions are answered in the second line with "Thou art more lovely and more temperate." This shows that the person the speaker is admiring is more beautiful, calm and understanding than a summer's day. The summer is inferior to the person being admired, and the speaker's love for this person is everlasting. If anyone has every experienced a beautiful summer's day he or she will see that the trees will shake from the wind. Leaves do eventually fall from the once lively buds of spring. Shakespeare also uses the technique of imagery to develop his idea of love in line three: "Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May." With this Shakespeare is telling us that though the winds of a summer shake the trees beauty, it will not shake the internal feelings of love from the speaker. Summer days are limited; they are short and soon will come to an end. Every year summer ends. Yes, it may begin again next year bu... ...agree with the sonnet and its final couplet. This structure, along with the iambic pentameters stressed and unstressed syllables engage the reader on the argument Shakespeare reaches for everlasting love. he structure of a Shakespearian sonnet aids in the emphasis of everlasting love. This also provides the reader to correctly read the sonnet as Shakespeare intended. Shakespeare has chosen the sonnet forms to develop his idea of everlasting love with questions, imagery, metaphors, rhyme schemes, and structure. Without these techniques we would not be able to gain the correct perspective that the beauty of love prevails over the beauty of nature; also how nature is not permanent and the sonnet will be everlasting. Works Cited Shakespeare, William. "Sonnet 18." Introduction to literature. Ed. Isobel M Findlay et al. 5th ed. Canada: Thomson Nelson, 2004. 133-134.

Violence and Politics :: Political Government Essays

Violence and Politics Let's talk about absolutely ridiculous pronouncements people make that either ignore simple fact or border on insanity. How about this one: Violence is no way to settle anything! Evidence suggests that violence is a very effective way of settling things. How about a few examples? In 1776, violence settled whether the thirteen colonies would be independent or remain under King George's thumb. In 1865, violence settled whether there'd be a Confederacy and a Union or just a Union. Between 1941 and 1945, violence settled whether Japan would control the Far East and whether Germany would control Europe. Violence settled whether American Indians owned and controlled the land now call United States or whether it would be European settlers and their progeny. In fact, violence has settled the question of land use-rights virtually everywhere. Violence and the threat of violence not only settles questions of land use; it settles other matters as well. For example, I have no problem with paying for the constitutionally mandated functions of the Federal Government - those enumerated in the U.S. Constitution. But I disagree with my earnings being given to dependent farmers, failing banks and poor people. Who has use-rights to my earnings is settled through threats, intimidation and violence. The U.S. Congress in essence tells me, "Williams, if you do not permit us to give your earnings to dependent farmers, banks, poor people, and any one else we deem worthy of your earnings, we will use violence to take your earnings and anything else you possess. Some readers might think that I am being overly hyperbolic. What do you think would be the outcome of the following scenario? I write on my IRS 1040 form: "I gladly accept my responsibility to pay my share of constitutionally mandated functions of the federal government. That share comes to about one-third of what you say I owe. I will not pay for activities not authorized by the Constitution." What happens. The IRS, the agents of the U.S. Congress, levies a fine and demands that I pay all they say I owe. I refuse. Then the IRS says, "We're going to confiscate your house." I say, "No you won't; that's my house." Then they send agents with automatic weapons to take my house. I stand and defend my house. The agents of the U.S. Congress kill me. The truth of the matter is that violence is such an effective and valuable means of settling differences that most governments demand to have a monopoly on its use.

Types of Diabetes

DESCRIPTIONDiabetes pertains to a metabolic disorder that is associated with the lack or absence of insulin, a protein that transports glucose into the cells of the body.   Glucose, also simply known as sugars, is considered as the first source of energy for the daily activities performed by the human body, such as walking and standing.   In addition, glucose also serves as the main resource for the energy that is required to fuel cellular processes within the body, including that of growth and repair of cells and tissues.   The food items consumed by an individual generally contain glucose and thus the presence of insulin is important for the transport of this macromolecule to the appropriate regions of the body.Insulin is mainly produced by the pancreas, which is a digestive organ that is strategically located next to the small intestines, where digestion commonly occurs.   Once the process of digestion has been completed in the intestines, the glucose molecules transported into cells through the help of insulin.   In normal individuals, the amount of insulin produced by the pancreas is enough to transport the glucose that is present in the meal consumed.   On the other hand, individuals with diabetes show a lack or absence of insulin secreted by the pancreas, thus preventing the transport of the glucose molecules into the cells.   Glucose is therefore left outside the cells and these remain circulating in the blood.   The continuous accumulation of glucose further extends from the blood to the urine, which in turn are samples employed for the diagnostics of diabetes.CAUSES OF DIABETESDiabetes is generally caused by a number of factors, depending on the type of diabetes that has been positively diagnosed in an individual.   Type 1 diabetes, also known as insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM), pertains to an autoimmune condition that involves the incapacity of the body to combat infections (NIH, 2010a).   In this case, the immune syst em of an individual causes the destruction of the cells of the pancreas, thus decreasing and possibly preventing the production of insulin for glucose transport.   The actual mechanism that triggers the destruction of the pancreatic cells by the immune system is still unknown and there are active efforts in the field of biomedical research that are attempting to elucidate this reaction.Type 2 diabetes, also known as non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM), pertains to an increase in the level of glucose in the body due to aging, obesity or genetic inheritance of the condition (NIH, 2010b).   Type 2 diabetes is therefore more commonly observed among elderly individuals, as their metabolic rate generally slows down as they age.   Obese individuals tend to develop diabetes because their food choices are often different from the recommended daily diet, thus increasing the likelihood that sugar-rich foods would be consumed on a regular basis.Gestational diabetes pertains to the increase in the blood glucose level of a female during pregnancy.   This occurrence is usually linked to the gain in the total body weight of a woman during pregnancy, as well as the decrease in the physical activity of the woman as she progresses through the entire gestational period of 36 weeks or 9 months.   Unlike types 1 and 2 diabetes, gestational diabetes often disappears once the woman has given birth.   The disappearance of the features of diabetes are possibly linked to the loss in the total body weight after birth, as well as the increase in the physical activity of the woman after delivery.EPIDEMIOLOGY OF DIABETESType 1 diabetes generally affects both males and females, yet there are certain characteristics that strongly associated with this metabolic disease.   According to the World Health Organization, type 1 diabetes is more common among whites and is considered as a rare disease among non-white populations of Africa and Asia.   Type 2 diabetes, on the other hand, is commonly diagnosed in elderly individuals.Moreover, elderly individuals who are overweight are more likely to develop type 2 diabetes because these individuals tend to be less active in physical activities.   Certain populations are thus associated with type 2 diabetes, including those of African and Asian ethnicities.   In the United States alone, there are 24 million individuals with the age of 20 years old and above that have been diagnosed with diabetes (NIDDK, 2007).   On the other hand, there are 12 million elderly individuals who have been diagnosed with diabetes in the United States.TREATMENT OF DIABETESType 1 diabetes is generally treated with the administration of insulin on a daily basis.   Patient are therefore taught how to inject insulin everyday, in order to maintain a normal level of insulin in their blood.   Type 2 diabetes is usually treated with medications that assist in the digestion of glucose from the food items consumed.   This med ication is given on a daily basis using a tablet or capsule format.   In addition to medications, a healthy diet is highly recommended to diabetic patients.   This includes food items that are low in sugar content, such as green, leafy vegetables and fiber-rich fruits and grains.Exercise is also recommended for diabetic patients, as this assists in increasing the metabolic rate of the body.   Diabetic patients are also educated on the condition of hypoglycemia, which is the extreme lowering of the blood glucose level of the body, resulting in fainting and a decrease in the arterial blood pressure.   A dietician therefore plays an important role in the design of the dietary regimen of diabetic patients.   A regular check-up should also be performed every 3 to 6 months, wherein the fasting blood sugar levels are determined, in order to evaluate the progress of the patient with the current dietary regimen.REFERENCESNational Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Disea ses.   (2007).   National Diabetes Statistics, 2007.   Downloaded from http://diabetes.niddk.nih.gov/dm/pubs/statistics/DM_Statistics.pdf on July 8, 2010.National Institutes of Health.   (2010a).   Type 1 diabetes: Thirty years of progress.   Downloaded from http://www.nih.gov/about/researchresultsforthepublic/Type1Diabetes.pdf on July 8, 2010.National Institutes of Health.   (2010b).   Type 2 diabetes: Thirty years of progress.   Downloaded from http://www.nih.gov/about/researchresultsforthepublic/Type2Diabetes.pdf on July 8, 2010.

Channels of Distribution and Logistics

Chapter 6 Channels of distribution and logistics LEARNING OBJECTIVES By the end of this chapter you will: n n n n omprehend key elements and decisions in distribution channel design be able to evaluate different configurations of channel structure be familiar with recent trends and developments in channels of distribution appreciate the importance of managing the physical flows of products, services and information into, through, and out of the organization to its customers n grasp the meaning and scope of physical distribution and logistics management n be aware of developments and trends in production and manufacturing, particularly the growth of ‘lean manufacturing’ and implications for logistics n recognize the role of Information Technology and marketing in logistics Channels of distribution and logistics 191 INTRODUCTIONThis chapter deals with the ‘place’ element of marketing strategy (i. e. ‘placement’ of goods and services from their res pective providers into the hands of customers). Before we discuss the structure of marketing channels, followed by logistics, it is useful that we look at their emergence and the functions that channels perform. THE CONSUMER WANTS CYCLE The word ‘channel’ has its origins in the word for canal, which for marketing can be interpreted as a route taken by products as they flow from production to points of intermediate and final use. Marketing is a key factor in a continuous cycle that begins and ends with consumer wants. It is the role of he marketer to interpret consumer wants and combine them with empirical market data such as location of consumers, their numbers and preferences, to establish the starting point for manufacture. On completion of manufacture, the finished product is moved to the consumer and the cycle is complete when he or she obtains satisfaction resulting from product ownership. THE PRODUCER–USER GAP Despite the growth of direct marketing (to be d iscussed in Chapter 10) in today’s complex economy, most producers still do not sell directly to final users. Between them and consumers lie marketing intermediaries. A distribution channel bridges the gap between user and producer, and so plays an integral role in the operation of the marketing concept. Relationships among channel members are influenced by the structure of the channel.Marketing channels can be described as sets of interdependent organizations involved in the process of making a product or service available for use or consumption. DEMAND STIMULUS In addition to marketing channels satisfying demand by supplying goods and services in the right location, at the correct quantity and price, they should stimulate demand through promotional activities of retailers, manufacturers and wholesalers. In this way, a marketing channel should be 192 Channels of distribution and logistics viewed not just as a demand satisfier, but as an orchestrated network that creates valu e for consumers through the generation of form, possession, time and place utilities.We start by examining ways in which distribution systems are designed and how channel policy is determined, depending on the degree of market exposure sought by a company. DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM DESIGN The starting point for marketing channel design is the end consumer. Although an understanding of consumer purchasing patterns is essential, there are other factors that influence channel organization: n n n n n There may be a restriction in choice of outlets available to suppliers, e. g. retail outlets may already have been secured by established manufacturers. Channel design will be influenced by the number, size and geographic concentration of consumers.If customers are few in number, but large and geographically concentrated, it may be that direct channels will be suitable. If customers are dispersed, the mechanics of direct channels become increasingly difficult and there will be a need for a large number of intermediaries. Product characteristics affect channel design. Industrial goods manufacturers tend to use direct channels, but there are other factors that influence the decision. Perishable goods, for example, need to be turned over quickly so direct methods are often applied. Non-perishable, non-bulky goods can be handled via indirect channels. Some products are more suited to indirect channels because of environmental characteristics.For example, in some countries shopping is seen very much as being a leisure activity especially for items like clothing and furniture, so much so that companies such as the Swedish company IKEA have made this a central part of their business model. Some organizations have limited discretion over marketing channel choice owing to economic conditions and legal restrictions. In certain of the Eastern European and Baltic countries such as Estonia, Latvia and Uzbekistan there is still restricted choice in terms of the range and scope of retail outlets for marketers. Any channel decision will have long-term implications for the company, e. g. price will be affected depending on the number of levels between the manufacturer and the end user.A decision to change channels is likely be long term so it is important that existing channel structures are constantly reviewed to exploit opportunities. STRATEGIC CHANNEL CHOICES An important consideration when formulating channel policy is the degree of market exposure sought by the company. Choices available include: Channels of distribution and logistics 193 n n n Intensive distribution where products are placed in as many outlets as possible. This is most common when customers purchase goods frequently, e. g. household goods such as detergents or toothpaste. Wide exposure gives customers many opportunities to buy and the image of the outlet is not important.The aim is to achieve maximum coverage. Selective distribution where products are placed in a more limited number of outlets i n defined geographic areas. Instead of widespread exposure, selective distribution seeks to show products in the most promising or profitable outlets, e. g. high-end ‘designer’ clothes. Exclusive distribution where products are placed in one outlet in a specific area. This brings about a stronger partnership between seller and re-seller and results in strong bonds of loyalty. Part of the agreement usually requires the dealer not to carry competing lines, and the result is a more aggressive selling effort by the distributor of the company’s products, e. g. n exclusive franchise to sell a vehicle brand in a specific geographical area, in return for which the franchisee agrees to supply an appropriate after sales service back-up. We can see that there are several key decisions to make when determining the company’s distribution system. Its importance is underlined by the fact that the choice of distribution channel has an effect on all elements of the marketi ng mix and these are long term. TYPES AND CLASSIFICATION OF CHANNELS Marketing channels can be characterized according to the number of channel levels. Each institution that works to bring the product to the point of consumption is included. The number of intermediaries involved in channel operation determines on how many levels it operates.There are four main types of channel level in consumer markets as shown in Figure 6. 1. The first three levels (zero, one and two) are self explanatory. The three level channel includes a ‘jobber’, or merchant Zero level channel manufacturer Consumer One level channel manufacturer Retailer Consumer Two level channel manufacturer Wholesaler Retailer Consumer Three level channel manufacturer FIGURE 6. 1 Wholesaler Jobber Retailer Consumer Channel relationships 194 Channels of distribution and logistics wholesaler who intervenes between the wholesaler and retailer. It is the jobber’s role to buy from wholesalers and sell to small er retailers, who are not usually serviced by larger wholesalers.Within each channel, intermediaries are connected by three types of flow: 1 Physical flow describes movement of goods from raw material that is processed in various stages of manufacture until it reaches the final consumer. In the case of a towel manufacturer raw material is cotton yarn which flows from the grower via transporters to the manufacturer’s warehouses and plants. Title flow is the passage of ownership from one channel institution to another; when manufacturing towels, title to raw materials passes from the supplier to the manufacturer. Ownership of finished towels passes from manufacturer to the wholesaler or retailer and then to the final consumer. Information flow involves the directed flow of influence from activities such as advertising, personal selling, sales promotion and publicity from one member to other members in the system.Manufacturers of towels direct promotion, and information flows to retailers or wholesalers, known as trade promotion. This type of activity may also be directed to end consumers, i. e. ‘end user’ promotion. 2 3 Conventional marketing channels comprise autonomous business units, each performing a defined set of marketing functions. Co-ordination among channel members is through the bargaining process. Membership of the channel is relatively easy, loyalty is low and this type of network tends to be unstable. Members rarely co-operate with each member working independently of others. Decision makers are more concerned with cost and investment relationships at a single stage of the marketing process and tend to be committed to established working practices.Most food grocery products in the European Union are marketed through conventional marketing channels; independent food and grocery producers are responsible for growing, rearing and manufacturing products and brands. These are sold through a series of wholesalers and retailers such as Sainsbury’s, Aldi, Lidl, Tesco or Carrefour each operating as independent businesses in the chain and selling to their own customers. Vertical marketing systems are in contrast to conventional channels where members co-ordinate activities between different levels of the channel to reach a desired target market. The essential feature is that participants acknowledge and desire interdependence, and view it as being in their best longterm interests.For the channel to function as a vertical marketing system, one of the member firms must be acknowledged as the leader; typically the dominant firm, which can be expected to take a significant risk position and usually has the greatest relative power within the channel. An example of a vertical marketing system is that of franchising. The franchiser, usually on the basis of having a powerful brand or perhaps a patent/copyright, for a fee, allows franchisees to produce or distribute the product or service. The franchiser effectively c ontrols the channel, including aspects such as product ingredients, advertising and marketing, pricing, etc. through formal and legally enforceable agreements. Franchising is an example of what are termed contractual vertical marketing systems which we consider again shortly.Corporate vertical marketing is when a company owns two or more traditional levels of the channel. In many economies corporate vertical channels have arisen as a result of a desire for growth on the part of companies through vertical integration. Two types of vertical integration are possible with respect Channels of distribution and logistics 195 to the direction within which the vertical integration moves a company in the supply chain: when a manufacturer buys, say, a retail chain, this is referred to as forward integration with respect to the chain. Backward integration is moving upstream in the supply chain, e. g. when a retailer invests in manufacturing or a manufacturer invests in a raw material source.Alt hough the end result of such movements is a corporate vertical marketing channel, often the stimulus to such movement is less to do with channel economies and efficiencies, and more with control over access to supply or demand, entry into a profitable business or overall scale and operating economies. Much vertical integration activity which took place during the 1990s in many economies resulted in lower overall profitability levels, and in some cases, the demise of companies involved, as companies overextended themselves and/or moved into areas where they had little expertise. Because of this, many companies have now turned their attention towards contractual systems for achieving growth and more control through the vertical marketing system.Many of the large oil companies are examples of corporate vertical marketing. They prospect for oil, extract it, process it, distribute and retail it through their petrol stations. Other companies operate partial corporate vertical marketing sy stems in that they integrate only one way. Zara (the clothing retailer) is integrated vertically backward with manufacturing facilities. Firestone (the tyre manufacturer) on the other hand, is vertically integrated forward owning its own tyre retailers. Many companies formalize their obligations within channel networks by employing legitimate power as a means of control achieved by using contractual agreements.Nearly all transactions between businesses are covered by some form of contract, and as such the contractual agreement determines the marketing roles of each party within the contract. Indeed, the locus of authority usually lies with individual members. The most common form of contractual agreement are franchises and voluntary and co-operative groups. Franchises are where the parent company grants an individual person or relatively small company the right or privilege to do business in a prescribed manner over a certain time period in a specified place. The parent company is r eferred to as the franchiser (or franchisor) and may occupy any position in the channel network. The franchise retailer is termed the franchisee.There are four basic types of franchise system: n n n n Manufacturer/retailer franchise, e. g. service stations where most of the garage petrol stations such as Shell and Esso are franchisees of the large oil exploration and refining companies. Manufacturer/wholesaler franchise: e. g. Coca-Cola sell drinks they manufacture to franchised wholesalers, who in turn bottle and distribute soft drinks to retailers. This type of arrangement is common in the food and drinks markets with many of the large companies franchising part of their manufacturing and or wholesaling activities to others. The wholesaler/retailer franchise. Many retail chains are franchisees of large wholesalers.These wholesalers saw the value of securing a measure of control, and of course a share of the retail profits, from marketing their products and brands. The most notable example is ‘Spar’ which advertises itself as ‘Spar, your 8. 00 till late shop’, and of course all retail members must abide by this promise. The service/sponsor retailer franchise e. g. McDonald’s, Kentucky Fried Chicken, Subway, Car Rental companies like Avis and Hertz and services like DynoRod and Prontaprint. This is the best known and certainly most ubiquitous of franchising arrangements and it has enabled many organizations to rapidly expand their global operations. 196 Channels of distribution and logistics There are different types of franchise arrangement, e. g.McDonald’s insists that franchisees purchase from official suppliers; they provide building and design specifications, help locate finance for franchisees and impose quality standards to which each unit must adhere in order to hold its franchise. Rigorous inspection through ‘secret shoppers’ (explained in Chapter 12) ensures franchise ‘rules’ are being obeyed. Franchises share a set of common features and operating procedures: 1 2 3 4 A franchise essentially sells a nationally, or internationally, recognized trade name, process, or business format to the franchisee. The franchiser normally offers expert advice e. g. location selection, capitalization, operation and marketing. Most franchises operate a central purchasing system at national or international level to enable cost savings to be made at the individual franchise level.The franchise is subject to a contract binding both parties that normally requires the franchisee to pay a franchise fee and royalty fees to the franchiser, but the franchisee owns the business as opposed to being employed. The franchiser often provides initial and continuous training to the franchisee. 5 Contractual vertical marketing systems like franchising have been one of the fastest growing areas of marketing and distribution. Substantial advantages derive from the franchising system. From a system t hat essentially involves two independent parties voluntarily agreeing to contract with each other, advantages accrue to both the franchisee and franchiser. Advantages to the franchisee are: n n n n n n The franchisee gains the benefit of being able to sell a well-known product or service which has been market tested and known to work.The franchisee enjoys access to the knowledge, experience, reputation and image of the franchiser. Because of this the franchisee is able to enter a business much more easily than setting up from scratch. The learning curve is shortened, expensive mistakes can be avoided, and there is less chance of business failure. Although the franchisee has the backing of what is often the large organization of the franchiser, the franchisee is still essentially an independent business with all that this implies for motivation to succeed. The franchisee is often helped by national or international advertising and promotion by the franchiser which would be beyond the means of a small independent business.The franchisee enjoys the use of the franchiser’s trademark, continuous research and development and market information. The franchiser will normally provide a system of management controls such as accountancy, sales and stock control procedures. Advantages to the franchiser are: n Finding and recruiting a network of franchisees enables rapid growth as wider distribution can be achieved with less capital. Channels of distribution and logistics 197 n n n n The individual franchisee is more motivated than a hired manager might be. The franchiser secures captive outlets for products or services, especially in the case of trade name franchising and private labels. Franchise and royalty fees provide a regular stream of income for the franchiser.The terms of the franchise contract normally give the franchiser substantial control over how the franchise is operated and normally the franchiser can terminate a contract should the relationship turn out to be unsatisfactory. The costs of such terminations are likely to be less than if the franchiser was operating a corporate owned facility with staff on the payroll. Normally, terms and restrictions on location and sale of the business by the franchisee ensure that the franchiser is able to maintain territorial exclusivity for its franchisees. There are disadvantages, but the franchise relationship combines the strengths of both small and large scale businesses. The franchisee is the small business person who is able to respond to local market conditions and offer personal services to customers.The franchiser passes on economies of scale in national advertising and bulk purchasing. For a franchise to be successful both parties need to work towards a common goal and avoid conflicts which requires frequent and open communication between partners if the system is to meet changing market conditions while maintaining its integrity. What constitutes the main disadvantages of franchis ing depends from whose perspective we are looking; the franchisee or the franchiser. The main disadvantages of franchising from each perspective are: Disadvantages to franchiser: n The franchiser loses some control over the provision and marketing of the brand. Poor service on the part of the franchisee can result in problems for brand image. Ideas and techniques can be copied even if seemingly well protected by patents and copyright arrangements. n Some proportion of profit has to be foregone. n There may be less commitment and enthusiasm from the franchisee. n Often franchisees lack business skills or experience. Disadvantages to the franchisee: n lack of support from franchiser; n franchiser may go out of business; n lack of flexibility/scope to use initiative; n close control from franchiser. Franchising is not solely confined to consumer products like fast food. It is used for a wide range of products and services in both consumer and industrial markets. Voluntary and co-operat ive groups emerged in the 1930s as a response to competition from chain stores.The scope of co-operative effort has expanded from concentrated buying power to the development of programmes involving centralized consumer advertising and promotion, store location and layout, financing, accounting and a package of support services. 198 Channels of distribution and logistics Generally, wholesale sponsored voluntary groups have been more effective competitors than retail sponsored co-operative groups. Primarily this is because of the difference in channel organization between the two. In the former, a wholesaler can provide strong leadership, because it represents the locus of power within the voluntary system and this is normally supported by a brand name like ‘Spar’.In the latter, power is diffused throughout the retail membership and role specification and allocation of resources are more difficult to accomplish. The principal purpose here is in bulk purchasing. In volunt ary groups, retail members have relinquished some of their autonomy by making themselves highly dependent on specific wholesalers for expertise. In retail co-operative chains, individuals retain more autonomy and this tends to depend much less strongly on the supply unit for assistance and direction. This type of organization is not to be confused with the Co-operative movement that was founded in 1844 by the Rochdale, Lancashire, Society of Equitable Pioneers who were a group of 28 weavers and other workers.As mechanization of the Industrial Revolution pushed more and more skilled workers into poverty, tradesmen banded together to open their own store selling items they could not otherwise afford. Over four months they pooled together ? 28 of capital. They opened their store with a basic selection of dry goods and foodstuffs and quickly moved into higher quality unadulterated produce. They devised the internationally famous Rochdale Principles: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 open membership; democr atic control (one person, one vote); distribution of surplus in proportion to trade; payment of limited interest on capital; political and religious neutrality; cash trading (no credit); promotion of education.Administered vertical marketing systems (VMS) do not have the formal arrangements of a contractual system or the clarity of power dependence of a corporate system. It is a co-ordinated system of distribution channel organization in which the flow of products from the producer to the end user is controlled by the power and size of one member of the channel system rather than by common ownership or contractual ties. Member organizations acknowledge the existence of dependence and adhere to the leadership of the dominant firm, which may operate at any level in the channel. Large retail organizations like Marks & Spencer typify this system. In administered systems like Marks & Spencer, units can exist with disparate goals, but there is informal collaboration on inclusive goals.Dec ision making occurs by virtue of interaction between channel members in the absence of a formal inclusive structure. However, the locus of authority still remains with individual channel members. As in conventional channels commitment is selforiented and there is a minimum amount of system-wide orientation among the members. As McCammon1 observes: Manufacturing organizations . . . have historically relied on administrative expertise to coordinate reseller marketing efforts. Suppliers with dominant brands have predictably experienced the least difficulty in securing strong trade support, but many manufacturers with Channels of distribution and logistics 199 fringe’ items have been able to elicit reseller co-operation through the use of liberal distribution policies that take the form of attractive discounts, financial assistance, and various types of concessions that protect resellers from one or more of the risks of doing business. An example of a successful administered VMS in is that of the furniture/lifestyle retailer, IKEA who has developed close working relationships with its suppliers. Acting as the channel co-ordinator, IKEA is committed to cost-effective supply and their suppliers benefit from the channel leadership of an effective and marketing-oriented retailer. Administered VMS are one step removed from conventional marketing channels. In an administered system, co-ordination of marketing activities is achieved by the use of programmes developed by one or a limited number of firms.Successful administered systems are conventional channels in which the principles of effective inter-organizational management have been correctly applied. Before we discuss how such marketing channels are co-ordinated, it is important that we discuss their structure. STRUCTURE OF MARKETING CHANNELS The marketing channel has two basic aspects: 1 2 the placement of intermediary types of channel in relation to each other i. e. the order in which they occur; the number of different intermediary levels or stages in the channel i. e. how many different separate types of intermediary are involved, so types of intermediary and number of levels determine the structure of a marketing channel. There are several types of channel structure, dependent on the type of goods.An example of a structure for consumer goods such as food and clothing is shown in Figure 6. 2. This figure is based on three assumptions: 1 2 3 The channel consists of complete organizations. Manufacturers’ agents and selling agents are included with the merchants even though they do not take title to the goods. Physical movement follows exactly the movement of ownership. We must understand the underlying reasons for the emergence of channel structures. Four logical steps can be identified: 1 2 3 4 The efficiency of the process can be increased via an intermediary. Channel intermediaries arise to adjust the discrepancy of assortments through the performance of the sorting processe s.Marketing agencies remain together in channel arrangements to provide the routine of transactions. Channels exist to facilitate deliveries and to avoid inventory stock-outs. 200 Channels of distribution and logistics 1 M 2 M 3 M 4 M 5 M 6 M 7 M 8 M 9 M C W R A R W W A C W W C R W W W C C C R C R C R C R C M = Manufacturer W = Wholesaler A = Agent (sells for manufacturers) R = Retailer C = Consumer FIGURE 6. 2 A typical example of structure for consumer goods Rationale for intermediaries As numbers of transactions increase, the need for intermediaries becomes greater. The marketing channel is a ‘canal’ which contains the physical flow of products.Because of the complex array of intermediaries operating within a channel, which may be involved in one or all aspects of channel function, the channel may also be visualized as a chain-link arrangement where each intermediary unit is effectively a link. Manufacturers are dependent on the effectiveness of their intermediaries if their channels of distribution are to meet their marketing goals. Intermediaries of a channel specialize in more than one function. Their inclusion primarily depends on their superior efficiency in the performance of basic marketing tasks. Such intermediaries, through their experience, specialization, contacts and scale of operation, offer other channel members more than they can achieve on their own. However, this type of specialization leads to some important behavioural concepts. Position and role Each channel member chooses a position or location in the channel. Role’ refers to the functions and degree of performance expected of the firm filling a position. Channel intermediaries perform the distribution function at a lower unit cost than the manufacturer who is the intermediary most distanced from the consumer, and they balance the production efficiencies of the supplier to the purchasing needs of the customer. Another reason is to break down large volumes into smalle r quantities, termed ‘breaking bulk’, e. g. a furniture retailer places an order for 100 tables, but the individual buys only one. When we consider the selling process, the number of intermediaries can reduce the number of transactions Channels of distribution and logistics 201 ontained within the selling process. See Figure 6. 3. Figure 6. 3 shows that there are four manufacturers and ten retailers who buy goods from each manufacturer. Here the number of contact lines amounts to 40 (i. e. 4 10). If all four manufacturers sell to 10 retailers through one intermediary, the number of contacts is reduced to 14 (i. e. 4 10). The number of contacts increases as the number of intermediaries increases, e. g. when the number of wholesalers is increased to 2, contacts will increase from 14 to 28 (i. e. [4 2] [10 2]). Thus, greater numbers of intermediaries result in diminishing returns per contact. (a) Selling directly ManufacturersRetailers 40 contact lines (b) Selling through one wholesaler Manufacturers Wholesaler Retailers 14 contact lines (c) Selling through two wholesalers Manufacturers Wholesalers Retailers 28 contact lines FIGURE 6. 3 The economics of intermediary systems 202 Channels of distribution and logistics Assortment and sorting In addition to increasing the efficiency of transactions, intermediaries smooth the flow of goods and services by creating what economists refer to as ‘possession’, ‘place’ and ‘time’ utilities. This smoothing requires that intermediaries perform a sorting function to overcome the discrepancy that arises between goods produced by manufacturers and goods demanded by the consumer.In addition, intermediaries bring together a range of similar or related items into a large stock, thus facilitating the buying process. A supermarket will buy in thousands of lines to provide shoppers with choice, and a builders’ merchant will provide everything from sand and gravel to light fitt ings that the builder can use. In this way, intermediaries play an important role in facilitating the flow of products from the manufacturer to the consumer. Routine transactions The cost of distribution can be minimized if transactions are routinized. In effect, through routinization, a sequence of marketing agencies is able to hang together in a channel arrangement or structure.A good example is automatic ordering, whereby the cost of placing orders is reduced when retail inventory levels reach the necessary re-order point. Searching Buyers and sellers are often engaged in similar activities within the marketplace. There is a degree of uncertainty if manufacturers are unsure of customer wants and needs, and consumers are not always sure what they will find. In this respect, marketing channels facilitate the searching process in two ways: 1 2 Wholesale and retail institutions are organized by different product groups; for example, fashion, hardware, grocery. Many products are widel y available from wide ranging locations. FLOWS IN MARKETING CHANNELSWhen we discuss marketing flows, there will be times when the word ‘function’ could be used, but here we refer to marketing ‘flows’ in channels as a better method of describing movement. In this way, we can show that various intermediaries that make up a marketing channel are connected by several distinguishable types of flow, summarized in Figure 6. 4, which depicts eight universal flows. The figure shows that physical possession, ownership and promotion are typically forward flows from producer to consumer. Each of these moves is ‘down’ the channel; a manufacturer promotes the product to a wholesaler, who in turn promotes it to a retailer, and so on. Negotiation, financing and risking flows move in both directions, whereas ordering and payment are backward flows.Financing is the most important of these flows; at any one time, when stocks are being held by one member of the ch annel, financing is in operation. When a wholesaler takes ownership and physical Channels of distribution and logistics 203 Physical possession Ownership Promotion Producers Retailers Negotiation Financing Rising Ordering Payment Wholesalers Customers: household and industrial FIGURE 6. 4 Marketing flows in channels Woolly Thinking Under the auspices of the Confederation of British Wool Textiles (CBWT), groups of British wool textile manufacturers exchange information and ideas. The Confederation is organized into distinct groups in the industry with each group representing a particular stage in the manufacturing and processing of wool.For example, there is a group representing ‘Raw Fibre Producers’, another representing ‘Spinners’, another representing ‘Fabric Manufacturers’ and one representing the interests of ‘Dyers and Finishers’. possession of a portion of the output of a manufacturer, the wholesaler is essentially financing the manufacturer. This notion is apparent if the costs of stock are considered. Stock held in stores as dormant stock is ‘dead money’, but if this is freed via a wholesaler, this ‘dead money’ is available for reinvestment. The furniture industry exemplifies the flow. Traditional furniture retailers operating on a sold-order basis do not participate in the backward financing flow.However, ‘warehouse type’ furniture retailers participate in this flow directly, and receive benefits from manufacturers in the form of lower prices and preferential treatment. This backward flow of financing is not solely associated with stockholding, another example being prepayment for merchandise. The problem is that in the event of any downturn in sales the warehouse type retailer with large sums of money tied up in stock is very vulnerable to cash flow and liquidity problems. To underline this, blaming the downturn in the UK housing market in July 2009, the UKâ₠¬â„¢s second largest carpet retailer, Allied Carpets, called in the receiver. 204Channels of distribution and logistics Forward flow of financing is more common. All terms of sale, with the exception of cash on delivery and prepayment, may be viewed as elements of the forward flow of financing. In addition to these flows there is information flow. Typically, information regarding product attributes is passed ‘down’ the channel, often with the dominant channel member having greater influence on this function. Marketing information is passed ‘back’ up the channels. In addition, information flows horizontally, i. e. with intermediaries operating at the same level, such as fibre manufacturers, communicating for mutual benefit.CHANNEL CO-ORDINATION However well designed a marketing channel may be it is important that it is organized and coordinated, otherwise activities and flows will not operate effectively, and the full potential of the system will not be real ized. Emphasis should be placed on understanding behavioural dimensions of inter-organizational relationships, because through such understanding, the manager can organize, manipulate and exploit available resources. The long-term objective of channel management is to achieve, at a reasonable cost, the greatest possible impact at the end user level, so that individual members of the channel can obtain satisfactory returns (e. g. rofits, market share) as compensation for their specific contributions. The behaviour of intermediaries within any given structural arrangement should thus be directed towards achieving high yield performance. Once the marketing management of an organization isolates the market targets to attack, and the products and services which it must supply in order to satisfy needs and wants in those various segments, the question of how best to make products and services available for consumption arises. Figure 6. 5 identifies four major steps that represent the co-o rdination process. The first step is to determine the level of service outputs demanded by end users of the commercial channel system.Service outputs that are among the most significant in distribution are, for example, lot size. Some companies insist on a minimum order level. Under this limit they will not accept the order. In contrast, often smaller companies are unable or unwilling to supply orders over a certain size. A second type of service output is delivery or waiting time, or how long it takes from order to delivery. A third service output relates to market decentralization or spatial convenience, namely, to where the provider will deliver. For example, some suppliers will only deliver locally whereas at the other extreme some will undertake to deliver anywhere in the world. Finally, there is breadth and depth of product or service assortment.This refers to whether or not the provider is able to supply a full range of products and services or only a selected range, i. e. a ‘one -stop shopping’ facility. The second step involves identifying the marketing tasks that need to be carried out in order to achieve the service outputs, and which channel members have the capability to perform the tasks. Management must then determine whether, through the use of channel control strategies, they will be able to control the behaviour of existing channel members or be compelled to integrate channel flow vertically so the required service outputs are provided to end users. Channels of distribution and logistics 205 Step 1 Determine service output levels required by customersStep 2 Analyse the roles which channel members must perform to assure delivery of the required service outputs Step 3 Use economic and other power bases to motivate channel members to carry out their assigned roles Step 4 Devise mechanisms for dealing with conflicts that occur within the channel FIGURE 6. 5 Stages in the channel co-ordination process For example, if a desired level o f service output is that orders must be fulfilled within five working days then the channel and logistics system must be designed to reach this service level. If intermediaries in the channel are unwilling or unable to meet this service output then alternative channel arrangements must be found.Without effective channel management and control there is no guarantee that the desired service outcomes will be achieved, so a major issue in channel management relates to where, and to what extent, marketing flow participation should be assumed to generate the desired service outputs; e. g. if a car buyer needs finance, the manufacturer, the retailer or an outside intermediary should provide it, but lending services must be readily available if the consumer is going to feel comfortable in considering a specific purchase that requires finance. In a situation where no channel intermediary is willing to accept the risk of financing, the initial supplier may have to assume this, i. e. it would prefer to specialize in those flows that it can perform at a comparative advantage.The third step in the co-ordinative process is to determine which strategies should be used to achieve the desired results, irrespective of whether management decides to invest in integrating functions or whether it deals with independent companies. Essentially this is an issue of where and how ‘power’ is applied in the channel. Power is the ability to get somebody to do a task. In the context of a marketing channel it can be defined in terms of how one channel member can exert influence on another channel member. For example, due to their size and purchasing power, many retail multiples in the UK like Marks & Spencer are able to exercise substantial power over their suppliers.Power is the mechanism by which congruent and effective roles become specified, roles become realigned when necessary, and appropriate role performance is enforced. There are several bases of power, which include re ward, coercion and expertise. 206 Channels of distribution and logistics The fourth step involves setting up mechanisms to deal with conflict issues that may arise so that the channel will continue to provide the desired service outputs even if channel members disagree. Very often channel members perform unique roles. Thus, manufacturers specialize in production and national promotions, while retailers specialize in merchandising, distribution and promotion at a local level. This specialization means that channel members become reliant on each other to achieve objectives.There has to be co-operation between channel members, as without it, the task will not be completed. Such co-operation does not always come easy and needs to be cultivated. CHANNEL CONFLICT There is a danger that there will be conflicts of interest and distribution channels will exhibit levels of conflict. For example, suppliers may want to deliver weekly to a retailer, but the retailer wants to hold less stock, so may want daily deliveries. Ideally, channel members should attempt to coordinate their objectives, plans and activities with other intermediaries such that performance of the total distribution system to which they belong is enhanced.Evidence supports the view that such integrated activity throughout the length of the marketing channel is rare and channel participants are not too concerned with transactions that occur between each of the various channel links. Channel intermediaries are more concerned about dealings between channel members immediately adjacent to themselves, from whom they buy, and to whom they sell. Channel intermediaries do not function as component members of a distribution system, but operate independently, making decisions concerning their own methods of operation, functions performed and clients served as well as deciding their own objectives, policies and programmes.Therefore, a marketing channel should be a set of interlocking and mutually dependent elements and it is in the interests of all channel members for there to be a substantial degree of co-operation, but an almost inevitable feature is potential conflict between members which should be taken into account when making channel arrangements. It is possible that healthy competition can lead to conflict and management should seek ways to reduce this conflict. Conflict in distribution channels can occur in different forms as follows: 1 2 Horizontal conflict – is related to competition among similar types of intermediaries at the same level in the channel – e. g. two household textile stores in competition with each another.Intertype conflict – refers to competition among different types of intermediaries at the same level in the channel. This kind of competition has intensified since the advent of ‘scrambled merchandising’ by retailers (where retailers add new product lines that are unrelated to their normal lines of business) e. g. supermarkets hav e added homewares and clothing to their product lines, offering consumers a wider product range and attaining higher margins. Intertype conflict is significant as it reflects a way in which industries remain efficient and respond to changing market conditions. Vertical conflict – refers to competition among different levels in a channel.Such problems can be damaging to existing co-operative relationships e. g. in recent years some of the major car producers have been in conflict with their distributors over matters like pricing and discount policies, stockholding levels and exclusivity agreements. 3 Channels of distribution and logistics 207 Stress and conflict can be in a dormant state; times of change cause existing stress to peak, leading to hostility among channel members. Some conflict is inevitable in channels and may even be positive in that it can prompt needed changes. The earlier example regarding retailers selling manufacturers’ brands at lower prices than m anufacturers wish is an example of vertical conflict.Selling of brands like Levis and Calvin Klein at prices lower than those recommended by manufacturers has given rise to vertical conflict in the channel. Other examples of this type of conflict in the UK recently have been the selling of discounted books and discounted pharmaceutical products by the large retail supermarket groups. Goal incompatibility Channel members appear to share a common goal – maximizing the efficiency and effectiveness of the total system. However, each firm exists as a separate legal entity, each with its own employees, owners and other interested parties who help shape its goals and strategies. Some firms’ goals may be incompatible with the aims and objectives of other channel members.This incompatibility can be a primary cause of stress which will ultimately result in conflict. The distribution of channel profits is a typical example. Each institution will desire the highest possible profit for the whole channel and the natural tendency will be towards co-operation to achieve maximum profit levels. However, each individual firm can be expected to desire the largest obtainable share of total channel profits. The predictable result is conflict over the allocation process. Even if goals are compatible, there may be disagreements about methods employed: all channel members may agree that increases in volume of a product are desirable, but may disagree on the means employed to accomplish it.Wholesalers may desire more shelf space for better positioning of products in retail stores; retailers may feel that more advertising and promotional effort by the manufacturer would accomplish the objective of an increase in sales. The result is conflict over which method to use. Position, role and domain incongruence In a channel consisting of a manufacturer using only wholesalers who sell to retailers, there will be a realignment of the roles and domains of each party. By serving lar ge retailers direct, positions will be re-specified. Changes in position specification, or poorly defined positions, can precipitate conflict among channel members, so the manufacturer must anticipate and understand the expected behaviour of such members. In situations where consensus does not exist, conflict can be expected.Because each role represents a code of conduct defining the channel member’s expected contribution, adequate performance is critical to maintaining harmony within the channel system. Inadequate performance, or failure to behave in the prescribed manner, frustrates attempts by one firm to predict what the other will do and such frustration is a major cause of channel conflict. Conflict may also arise when there is lack of agreement concerning who is the channel leader (termed the ‘channel captain’). If channel members disagree on the domain of firms in the system, there will be conflict and an inability to achieve goals. If domains overlap, an d two or more firms lay claim to the same functions, products or customers, disagreement might lead to hostility.The conflict between car producers and their distributors just described, in part stems from the issue of 208 Channels of distribution and logistics who controls the channel. In the past it has been the car companies who have been channel captains but market and legislative changes have shifted the balance more towards distributors, giving rise to conflict. Communication breakdown Communication breakdowns may cause conflict in two ways: 1 The failure of one firm to pass on vital information to other channel members. A manufacturer wishing to maintain a competitive advantage may decide not to announce a new product until a national distribution programme has been developed.Retailers, on the other hand, need information about new products as soon as possible to prepare their own strategy for the introductory period. Distortion within the message process is called ‘noi se’ that often arises from confused language nuances. When channel members attach different meanings to language and terminology (e. g. if their roles are unclear and confused) stress results and there is potential for conflict. Speculation surrounding the health of Apple boss Steve Jobs caused problems for the company and its distributors. In January 2009 the annual MacWorld conference normally used to announce new products and developments was cancelled.This caused speculation in the trade about whether or not Jobs would continue. The problem was not so much Jobs’ illness bur rather the rumours about it. In July 2009 it was announced that Jobs was making a good recovery from a liver transplant. 2 Communication breakdowns are common in specialist business areas. Noise arises when functional specialists develop terminology that means little to those outside that business environment. Unclear communication with non-specialists can play a part in developing conflict so t he specialist should ensure that communications have been understood. Differing perceptions of reality Different solutions to mutual problems can lead to confliction behaviour.Even when channel members have a strong desire to co-operate and goal agreement exists, conflict can occur when perceptions of the real facts differ. Bare Bellies Update Dear all, further to my e-mail yesterday, I’ve had clarification that a new system for producing bare belly information will be in place. Please note there will no longer be blank bare belly sheets available in departments. Confused? So was this organization’s staff who received this e-mail. The e-mail was from the organization’s publicity department and was sent to all staff. ‘Bare bellies’ is a term used by printers to denote blank sheets to be printed on. The e-mail related to the production of company promotional material. Channels of distribution and logistics 209Each channel member brings to the relation ship different backgrounds and prejudices; facts are likely to be interpreted according to prior experience. All members may agree that the channel is not functioning as effectively as desired; each channel member may perceive a different reason for this lack of effectiveness. Manufacturers may feel that a retailer’s lack of stock is due to failure to maintain adequate safety stock levels and realistic reorder points. The retailer may feel that inventory policies are realistic and that the problem is caused by the manufacturer’s inability to meet scheduled delivery times. Each party is interpreting the situation based upon experience and natural prejudices associated with its own position and role. Ideological differencesSometimes there may be a fundamental ideological conflict in channels which stems from big business and small business perceptions of management, particularly concerning the appropriate level of sales effort. For example, a manufacturer may be so satis fied with the performance of a wholesaler in a given territory that pressure is exerted on the wholesaler to expand the line of products on offer, whereas the wholesaler may be satisfied with allowing the business to continue to run in its present form. In this way, pressures exerted by the manufacturer will lead to stress and conflict in the relationship. If this is an established channel, it is in the interests of everybody to settle the dispute or misunderstanding quickly.There are several methods of resolving conflict, and it is a task of management to seek ways in which to manage it to avoid it becoming dysfunctional and to harness the energies in conflict situations to produce solutions. Depending on which underlying cause is identified, different strategies can be employed in isolation. Another important factor in the resolution of the conflict will be the weight of power of the channel member seeking to resolve the conflict. Problem solving Adopting superordinate goals is a method that refers to goals that are desired by all members caught up in the conflict. Often such goals cannot be achieved by individual channel members, as concerted efforts of all parties are required.Such disputes become more pronounced when the channel is confronted by an external threat, and conflict only dissipates when alternative channel systems emerge. The threat to existing channel members of new channel arrangements for car retailing in the UK has brought about a reduction in conflict between traditional channel members. Car manufacturers and dealers were challenged by the fact that consumers were increasingly purchasing new cars through a variety of new channels including sourcing them from countries where prices might be lower, the growth of ‘car hypermarkets’ where cars are sourced on the ‘grey market’ and through the Internet.The result has been for existing traditional channel members to adopt superordinate goals and this has resulted in a r eduction of conflict between them in an effort to survive. Permanent conflict resolution requires an integration of the needs of both sides to the dispute so they find a common goal without sacrificing their basic economic and ethical principles. The problem is developing a common goal on which all parties agree. 210 Channels of distribution and logistics A solution exists to alleviate communications noise in distribution channels. A more efficient flow of information and communications in channels permits members to find solutions to their conflict based on common objectives. Channel communication efforts should be designed to decrease or avoid conflict, e. g. sing sales representatives to convey information from wholesalers or retailers implies that the manufacturer is trying to encourage the attainment of both individual and common goals; the function of the sales representative in such cases is that of ‘problem solver’. Persuasion This implies that institutions invo lved draw on their leadership potential. If effective channel management is to be achieved, it is often the case that there will be a need to locate an institution or an agency within the system that is willing to assume this role. Channel leadership is the intentional use of power to affect the behaviour of other channel members and cause them to act in a manner that contributes to the maintenance or achievement of a desired level of performance.Often channel control results from channel leadership and like channel power, the level of control achieved by one firm over others in a channel may be issue specific, e. g. while the manufacturer may have control over pricing, retailers may have control over stock levels. Whether or not control can be exerted depends on the power base of each channel member. By its nature, persuasion involves communication between conflicting parties. Emphasis is on influencing behaviour to resolve conflict; the primary intention is to avoid or reduce conf lict concerned with domain or sphere of influence. Persuasion allows members to reach a consensus resulting in agreement without formal bargaining. Some years ago a well-known company launched its own brand of cola. The new brand was eagerly tocked by many leading grocery supermarkets who were persuaded to make space for the new brand on their shelves. Inevitably this meant less shelf space for existing brands including some of the best known cola brands in the world. As if this loss of shelf space was not bad enough, the world’s leading cola brand claimed bitterly that at first glace the new Virgin cola looked remarkably like their own cola brand. They subsequently asked Virgin to withdraw the new brand in its present form and at the same time asked their supermarket customers not to stock it. Needless to say, there were protracted discussions, but after a little time all parties were persuaded to come to a compromise which avoided costly litigation and loss of face.The new cola was altered slightly in appearance, some of the lost shelf space was restored and the new brand gradually made inroads into the market. Bargaining/negotiations The difference between bargaining and persuasion is that in the bargaining process stress continues to exist in the system long after agreement is reached. In negotiation, no attempt is made to fully satisfy a channel member. Instead, the objective is to reach an ‘accommodation’ to stop conflict among members. Such a compromise may resolve the episode, but not necessarily the fundamental stress over which the conflict erupted. If stress continues, it is likely that some issue will cause conflict again at some later date. Compromise is a means by which bargains can be reached in the channel.Each party gives up something it desires to prevent or end conflict. Often compromise is necessary to reach domain consensus where persuasion and negotiation draw on abilities of parties involved to communicate. Channels o f distribution and logistics 211 Politics Politics refers to resolution of conflict involving new organizations in the agreement-reaching process. Mediation involves a third party, usually to secure settlement of a dispute by persuading the parties to continue negotiation or consider recommendations made by the mediator. Mediation involves understanding the conflicting views of parties in such a way that opportunities are perceived that otherwise may have been missed.The fact that solutions are being offered by a mediator, i. e. somebody external to the dispute, can often lead to a settlement if both parties deem the solutions acceptable. Effective mediation keeps the parties together and clarifies facts so the communication process does not break down. While mediation offers solutions to disputes, channel members are not obliged to accept the solutions. In arbitration, however, the solution suggested by the third party is binding upon the conflicting parties. Arbitration can be com pulsory or voluntary, and when it is the former, parties are required by law to submit their dispute to the third party and be bound by the decision.Voluntary arbitration is a similar process whereby parties are bound by the decision, but the dispute is settled voluntarily. The question of relying on law enforcement to settle disputes in distribution is imprecise as it is doubtful whether solutions enforced by law can be applicable to future channel disputes in different circumstances. In purely domestic channel management, these mechanisms are not greatly used because of the inability to find a neutral third party whose decision will be accepted by everybody involved in the dispute. However, arbitration is a normal and accepted part of international channel management and is part of the contractual agreement between the parties in channel activities.For example, if an exporter feels that an overseas agent has not fulfilled the terms of an agreement between him or herself and the pr incipal, but the two parties cannot agree as to the remedies for this, then normally the terms and conditions for instituting an arbitration process are written into the original contract and will be instituted to resolve the problem. Diplomacy Channel diplomacy is the normal method by which inter-organizational relations are conducted, adjusted and managed by ‘ambassadors’, envoys or other persons operating at the boundaries of member organizations. Normally channel members rely on diplomatic procedures, especially in nonintegrated systems. Channel diplomats should be the ‘eyes and ears’ of the firms they work for, and should report anything that may be of interest. Such ‘diplomats’ are commonplace in distribution channels at executive level.In this way, the diplomat’s power base is such that it is obvious to the parties with whom the diplomat will interact. Effective channel management strategies provide for more rational decision maki ng within the channel. THE DYNAMIC NATURE OF CHANNELS Marketing is characterized by constant change, and there is a need for the marketer to adapt to these changes, making marketing channels subject to change and innovation. Channels represent a 212 Channels of distribution and logistics dynamic area of marketing as they are constantly evolving to meet changing customer and market needs which reflect underpinning wider changes and trends in demography and lifestyles. Marketers must be aware of the changing nature of channels and respond to them.An example of recent developments that are indicative of the innovation and changing nature of this area is the growth of multi-channel systems of direct marketing and Internet marketing which are dealt with in Chapter 10. The growth of multi-channels Companies now use a variety of channel arrangements to reach their target customers. Once, companies tended to use only one type of channel configuration in their marketing; now they use several . The use of multi-channel systems can be for a number of reasons: n n n to increase market coverage by reaching new customers; to reduce costs of selling to certain customers where for example such customers require less service than that provided through the company’s normal channels; to achieve a more customized service to particular customers than would be available through the company’s normal channels.In multi-channel marketing, a company might sell to one group of customers using telephone selling and no intermediaries, while another target group may be marketed to through a network of dealers, since these customers require after-sales service and technical advice. Although there are advantages to be gained through using several different channel configurations to different target customers, multi-channels can give rise to increased costs if not controlled. They can also give rise to problems of conflict between different channel members where several channels a re used, particularly where one type of channel member feels that their contractual rights are being infringed. An example is where the marketer uses a system of ‘appointed’ distributors for the company’s products.In return for being granted ‘exclusive’ distribution rights in a particular g